A pitaya (/pɪˈtaɪ.ə/) or pitahaya (/ˌpɪtəˈhaɪ.ə/) is the fruit of several cactus species indigenous to the region of southern Mexico and along the Pacific coasts of Guatemala, Costa Rica, and El Salvador.[1][2] Pitaya is cultivated in East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the United States, the Caribbean, Australia, Brazil, and throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
Pitaya usually refers to fruit of the genus Stenocereus, while pitahaya or dragon fruit refers to fruit of the genus Selenicereus (formerly Hylocereus), both in the family Cactaceae.[3] The common name in English – dragon fruit – derives from the leather-like skin and scaly spikes on the fruit exterior. Depending on the variety, pitaya fruits may have sweet- or sour-tasting flesh that can be red, white, or yellow in color.
These fruits are commonly known in English as “dragon fruit”, a name used since 1963, apparently resulting from the leather-like skin and prominent scaly spikes on the fruit exterior.[4] The fruit is often designated as “Vietnamese dragon fruit” as Vietnam is the lead exporter.[5] The fruit may also be known as a strawberry pear.[2][6]
The names pitahaya and pitaya derive from Mexico, and pitaya roja in Central America and northern South America, possibly relating to pitahaya for names of tall cacti species with flowering fruit.[2][7]
Pitaya or dragon fruit is native to the region of southern Mexico and along the Pacific coasts of Guatemala, Costa Rica, and El Salvador.[1][2] It was introduced to Indochina by the French around 1860.[8] The dragon fruit is cultivated in East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the United States, the Caribbean, Australia, and throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world.[1][2]
Stenocereus fruit (sour pitayas) are a variety that is commonly eaten in the arid regions of the Americas. They are more sour and refreshing, with juicier flesh and a stronger taste.
The fruit of related species, such as S. queretaroensis and the dagger cactus or pitaya de mayo (S. griseus),[3]: 223–225 are also locally important foods. The fruit of the organ pipe cactus (S. thurberi, called ool by the Seris) is the pitaya dulce “sweet pitaya”.
Sweet pitayas come in three types, all with leathery, slightly leafy skin:[3]: 215–216
Selenicereus undatus (Pitaya blanca or white-fleshed pitaya, also known as Hylocereus undatus) has pink-skinned fruit with white flesh. This is the most commonly seen “dragon fruit”.
Selenicereus costaricensis (Pitaya roja or red-fleshed pitaya, also known as Hylocereus costaricensis, and possibly incorrectly as Hylocereus polyrhizus) has red-skinned fruit with red flesh.
Selenicereus megalanthus (Pitaya amarilla or yellow pitaya, also known as Hylocereus megalanthus) has yellow-skinned fruit with white flesh.
The fruit normally weighs from 150 to 600 grams (5+1⁄2 to 21 oz); some may reach 1 kg (2 lb 3 oz).[9] Early imports from Colombia to Australia were designated “Hylocereus ocampensis” (or “Cereus repandus“, the red fruit) and “Cereus triangularis” (supposedly, the yellow fruit or the three-sided cross-section of the stem).
After a thorough cleaning of the seeds from the pulp of the fruit, the seeds may be stored when dried. The ideal fruit is unblemished and overripe.
Seeds grow well in a compost or potting soil mix – even as a potted indoor plant. Pitaya cacti usually germinate after between 11 and 14 days after shallow planting. As they are cacti, overwatering is a concern for home growers. As their growth continues, these climbing plants will find something to climb on, which can involve putting aerial roots down from the branches in addition to the basal roots. Once the plant reaches a mature 4.5 kilograms (10 pounds) in weight, the plant may flower.[clarification needed]
Commercial plantings can be done at high density with between 1,100 and 1,350 per hectare (445 and 546/acre). Plants can take up to 60 months/260 weeks to come into full commercial production, at which stage yields of 20 to 30 metric tons (22 to 33 short tons) can be expected.[10]
Pitaya flowers bloom overnight and usually wilt by the evening.[11] They rely on nocturnal pollinators such as bats or moths for fertilization. Self-fertilization will not produce fruit in some species and while crossbreeding has resulted in several “self-fertile” varieties, cross-pollinating with a second, genetically distinct plant of the same species generally increases fruit set and quality. This limits the capability of home growers to produce the fruit. However, the plants can flower between three and six times per year depending on growing conditions. Like other cacti, if a healthy piece of the stem is broken off, it may take root in the soil and become its own plant.
The plants can endure temperatures up to 40 °C (104 °F) and short periods of frost but will not survive long exposure to freezing temperatures. The cacti thrive most in USDA zones 10–11 but may survive outdoors in zone 9a or 9b.[2][12]
Selenicereus has adapted to live in dry tropical climates with a moderate amount of rain. In numerous regions, it has escaped cultivation to become a weed and is classified as an invasive weed in some countries.[1]
The red and purple colors of some Selenicereus fruits are due to betacyanins, a family of pigments that includes betanin, the same substance that gives beets, Swiss chard, and amaranth their red color.[18][19]
The USDA FoodData Central database published their analysis of the nutritional contents of raw Pitaya in 2022.[22] The majority of the fruit by weight is water (87g out of 100g). One serving of 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) provides 240 kilojoules (57 kilocalories) of food energy.
The pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub in the family Lythraceae, subfamily Punicoideae, that grows between 5 and 10 m (16 and 33 ft) tall. Rich in symbolic and mythological associations in many cultures, it is thought to have originated from Afghanistan and Iran before being introduced and exported to other parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe.[4][5][6]
The name pomegranate derives from medieval Latinpōmum ‘apple’ and grānātum ‘seeded’.[10] Possibly stemming from the old French word for the fruit, pomme-grenade, the pomegranate was known in early English as apple of Granada—a term which today survives only in heraldic blazons. This is a folk etymology, confusing the Latin granatus with the name of the Spanish city of Granada, which is derived from an unrelated Arabic word.[11]
Garnet derives from Old French grenat by metathesis, from Medieval Latin granatum as used in a different meaning ‘of a dark red color’. This derivation may have originated from pomum granatum, describing the color of pomegranate pulp, or from granum, referring to ‘red dye, cochineal‘.[12]
The modern French term for pomegranate, grenade, has given its name to the military grenade.[13]
Pomegranates were colloquially called wineapples or wine-apples in Ireland, although this term has fallen out of use. It still persists at the Moore Street open-air market, in central Dublin.[14][15]
The pomegranate is a shrub or small tree growing 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft) high, with multiple spiny branches. It is long-lived, with some specimens in France surviving for 200 years.[7]P. granatumleaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong, entire, 3–7 cm (1+1⁄4–2+3⁄4 in) long and 2 cm (3⁄4 in) broad. The flowers are bright red and 3 cm (1+1⁄4 in) in diameter, with three to seven petals.[7] Some fruitless varieties are grown for the flowers alone.[16]
The pomegranate fruit husk is red-purple with an outer, hard pericarp, and an inner, spongy mesocarp (white “albedo”), which comprises the fruit’s inner wall where seeds attach.[17] Membranes of the mesocarp are organized as nonsymmetric chambers that contain seeds which are embedded without attachment to the mesocarp.[17] Pomegranate seeds are characterized by having sarcotesta, thick fleshy seed coats derived from the integuments or outer layers of the ovule’s epidermal cells.[18][19] The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1,400.[20]
Botanically, the fruit is a berry with edible seeds and pulp produced from the ovary of a single flower.[18] The fruit is intermediate in size between a lemon and a grapefruit, 5–12 cm (2–4+1⁄2 in) in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish husk.[7]
In mature fruits, the juice obtained by compressing the seeds yields a tart flavor due to low pH (4.4) and high contents of polyphenols,[21] which may cause a red indelible stain on fabrics.[22] The pigmentation of pomegranate juice primarily results from the presence of anthocyanins and ellagitannins.[21][23]
P. granatum is grown for its vegetable crop, and as ornamental trees and shrubs in parks and gardens. Mature specimens can develop sculptural twisted bark, multiple trunks, and a distinctive overall form. Pomegranates are drought-tolerant, and can be grown in dry areas with either a Mediterranean winter rainfall climate or in summer rainfall climates. In wetter areas, they can be prone to root decay from fungal diseases. They can tolerate moderate frost, down to about −12 °C (10 °F).[24]
P. granatum reproduces sexually in nature but can be propagated using asexual reproduction. Propagation methods include layering, hardwood cuttings, softwood cuttings and tissue culture. Required conditions for rooting cuttings include warm temperatures within the 18 – 29 °C (65 – 85 °F) range and a semi-humid environment. Rooting hormone increases rooting success rate but is not required.[26] Grafting is possible but impractical and tends to yield low success rates.
The only other species in the genus Punica is the Socotran pomegranate (P. protopunica), which is endemic to the Socotran archipelago of four islands located in the Arabian Sea, the largest island of which is also known as Socotra. The territory is part of Yemen. It differs in having pink (not red) flowers and smaller, less sweet fruit.[29]
P. granatum has more than 500 named cultivars, but has considerable synonymy in which the same genotype is named differently across regions of the world.[17]
Several characteristics between pomegranate genotypes vary for identification, consumer preference, preferred use, and marketing, the most important of which are fruit size, exocarp color (ranging from yellow to purple, with pink and red most common), seed-coat color (ranging from white to red), the hardness of seed, maturity, juice content and its acidity, sweetness, and astringency.[17]
The leading producers globally are India and China, followed by Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, the US, Iraq, Pakistan, Syria, and Spain.[30] During 2019, Chile, Peru, Egypt, Israel, India, and Turkey supplied pomegranates to the European market.[31] Chile was the main supplier to the United States market, which has a limited supply from Southern California.[31] China was self-sufficient for its pomegranate supply in 2019, while other South Asia markets were supplied mainly by India.[31] Pomegranate production and exports in South Africa competed with South American shipments in 2012–18, with export destinations including Europe, the Middle East, the United Kingdom, and Russia.[32] South Africa imports pomegranates mainly from Israel.[32]
Pomegranate, late Southern Song dynasty or early Yuan dynastycirca 1200–1340 (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
The pomegranate is native to a region from modern-day Iran to northern India.[7] Pomegranates have been cultivated throughout the Middle East, India, and the Mediterranean region for several millennia, and it is also cultivated in the Central Valley of California and in Arizona.[7][33][34] Pomegranates may have been domesticated as early as the fifth millennium BC, as they were one of the first fruit trees to be domesticated in the eastern Mediterranean region.[35]
Carbonized exocarp of the fruit has been identified in early Bronze Age levels of Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) in the West Bank, as well as late Bronze Age levels of Hala Sultan Tekke on Cyprus and Tiryns.[36] A large, dry pomegranate was found in the tomb of Djehuty, the butler of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt; Mesopotamian records written in cuneiform mention pomegranates from the mid-third millennium BC onwards.[37] Waterlogged pomegranate remains have been identified at the circa 14th century BC Uluburun shipwreck off the coast of Turkey.[38] Other goods on the ship include perfume, ivory and gold jewelry, suggesting that pomegranates at this time may have been considered a luxury good.[39] Other archaeological finds of pomegranate remains from the Late Bronze Age have been found primarily in elite residences, supporting this inference.[38]
It is also extensively grown in southern China and Southeast Asia, whether originally spread along the Silk Road route or brought by sea traders. Kandahar is famous in Afghanistan for its high-quality pomegranates.[40]
Although not native to Korea or Japan, the pomegranate is widely grown there and many cultivars have been developed. It is widely used for bonsai because of its flowers and for the unusual twisted bark the older specimens can attain.[41] The term “balaustine” (Latin: balaustinus) is also used for a pomegranate-red color.[42]
Coat of arms of Spain with a pomegranate at the bottom, symbolizing the kingdom of Granada.
Spanish colonists later introduced the fruit to the Caribbean and America (Spanish America). However, in the English colonies, it was less at home: “Don’t use the pomegranate inhospitably, a stranger that has come so far to pay his respects to thee,” the English Quaker Peter Collinson wrote to the botanizing John Bartram in Philadelphia, 1762. “Plant it against the side of thy house, nail it close to the wall. In this manner it thrives wonderfully with us, and flowers beautifully, and bears fruit this hot year. I have twenty-four on one tree… Doctor Fothergill says, of all trees this is most salutiferous to mankind.”[43]
The pomegranate had been introduced as an exotic to England the previous century, by John Tradescant the Elder, but the disappointment that it did not set fruit there led to its repeated introduction to the American colonies, even New England. It succeeded in the South: Bartram received a barrel of pomegranates and oranges from a correspondent in Charleston, South Carolina, 1764. John Bartram partook of “delitious” pomegranates with Noble Jones at Wormsloe Plantation, near Savannah, Georgia, in September 1765. Thomas Jefferson planted pomegranates at Monticello in 1771; he had them from George Wythe of Williamsburg.[44]
Pomegranate seeds are edible rawA stall selling pomegranate juice in Xi’an, China
Pomegranate juice can be sweet or sour, but most fruits are moderate in taste, with sour notes from the acidic ellagitannins contained in the juice.[23] Pomegranate juice has long been a common drink in Europe and the Middle East, and is distributed worldwide.[45] Pomegranate juice is also used as a cooking ingredient. In Syria, pomegranate juice is added to intensify the flavor of some dishes such as kibbeh safarjaliyeh.
Grenadine syrup, commonly used in cocktail, originally consisted of thickened and sweetened pomegranate juice,[46] but today is typically a syrup made just of sugar and commercially produced natural and artificial flavors, preservatives, and food coloring, or using substitute fruits (such as berries).
A bowl of ash-e anar, an Iranian soup made with pomegranate juice
Before tomatoes (a New World fruit) arrived in the Middle East, pomegranate juice, pomegranate molasses, and vinegar were widely used in many Iranian foods; this mixture still found in traditional recipes such as fesenjān, a thick sauce made from pomegranate juice and ground walnuts, usually spooned over duck or other poultry and rice, and in ash-e anar (pomegranate soup).[47][48]
Pomegranate seeds are used as a spice known as anar dana (from Persian: anar + dana, pomegranate + seed), most notably in Indian and Pakistani cuisine. Dried whole seeds can often be obtained in ethnic Indian markets. These seeds are separated from the flesh, dried for 10–15 days, and used as an acidic agent for chutney and curry preparation. Ground anardana is also used, which results in deeper flavoring in dishes and prevents the seeds from getting stuck in teeth. Seeds of the wild pomegranate variety known as daru from the Himalayas are considered high-quality sources for this spice.
Dried pomegranate seeds, found in some natural specialty food markets, still contain some residual water, maintaining a natural sweet and tart flavor. Dried seeds can be used in several culinary applications, such as trail mix, granola bars, or as a topping for salad, yogurt, or ice cream.
Turkish lamb chops with candied figs and herbed mashed potatoes, garnished with pomegranate
In Turkey, pomegranate sauce (Turkish: nar ekşisi) is used as a salad dressing, to marinate meat, or simply to drink straight. Pomegranate seeds are also used in salads and sometimes as garnish for desserts such as güllaç.[49] Pomegranate syrup, also called pomegranate molasses, is used in muhammara, a roasted red pepper, walnut, and garlic spread popular in Syria and Turkey.[50]
In Greece, pomegranate is used in many recipes, including kollivozoumi, a creamy broth made from boiled wheat, pomegranates, and raisins, legume salad with wheat and pomegranate, traditional Middle Eastern lamb kebabs with pomegranate glaze, pomegranate eggplant relish, and avocado-pomegranate dip. Pomegranate is also made into a liqueur, and as a popular fruit confectionery used as ice cream topping, mixed with yogurt, or spread as jam on toast.
In Mexico, pomegranate seeds are commonly used to adorn the traditional dish chiles en nogada, representing the red of the Mexican flag in the dish which evokes the green (poblano pepper), white (nogada sauce) and red (pomegranate seeds) tricolor.
The edible portion of raw pomegranate is 78% water, 19% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 1% fat (table). A 100 g (3.5 oz) serving of pomegranate sarcotesta provides 12% of the Daily Value (DV) for vitamin C, 16% DV for vitamin K, and 10% DV for folate (table), while the seeds are a rich source of dietary fiber (20% DV).[53]
Despite limited research data, manufacturers and marketers of pomegranate juice have liberally used results from preliminary research to promote products.[60] In February 2010, the FDA issued a warning letter to one such manufacturer, POM Wonderful, for using published literature to make illegal claims of unproven anti-disease effects.[61][62][63]
In May 2016, the US Federal Trade Commission declared that POM Wonderful could not make health claims in its advertising, followed by a US Supreme Court ruling that declined a request by POM Wonderful to review the court ruling, upholding the FTC decision.[64][65]
Pomegranate, known as anār in Persian, is a symbol of fertility, blessing, and favor in Iranian belief. Pomegranates are sacred in the Zoroastrian religion and Zoroastrians used it in their religious rituals. The yellow color of the pomegranate stamens symbolizes the sun and light.[citation needed]
The pomegranate tree has been one of the most sacred and holy plants in Iran and is believed to be grown from places where the blood of Siavash (the legendary Iranian character who is known for his innocence) was spilled. It has been mentioned in Iranian Pahlavi scripts as a fruit of heaven. It is also believed that the invulnerability of Esfandiar (Iranian legend) was related to this sacred fruit. The Zoroastrians of Iran believe that pomegranate is a blessed fruit as it is served in their festivals like Mehregan and Nowruz, and especially in their wedding ceremonies to wish for the newly married couple to have healthy children in the future. They also used to plant a pomegranate tree in their fire temples to use its leaves in their ceremonies.[66]
During the Iranian tradition, Yalda Night, people come together on winter solstice and eat pomegranate fruit to celebrate the victory of light over darkness. [67]
In a relief from Persepolis, Darius the Great is holding a pomegranate flower with two buds. This Achaemenid king is accepting the representatives of all the subordinate lands of Greater Iran to his presence, while holding a large flower in his hand as a sign of peace and friendship.[citation needed]
Ancient Egyptians regarded the pomegranate as a symbol of prosperity and ambition. It was referred to by the Semitic names of jnhm or nhm.[68] According to the Ebers Papyrus, one of the oldest medical writings from around 1500 BC, Egyptians used the pomegranate for treatment of tapeworm and other infections.[69]
The Greeks were familiar with the fruit far before it was introduced to Rome via Carthage, and it figures in multiple myths and artworks.[76] In Ancient Greek mythology, the pomegranate was known as the “fruit of the dead”, and believed to have sprung from the blood of Adonis.[69][77]
The myth of Persephone, the goddess of the underworld, prominently features her consumption of pomegranate seeds, requiring her to spend a certain number of months in the underworld every year. The number of seeds and therefore months vary. During the months that Persephone sits on the throne of the underworld beside her husband Hades, her mother Demeter mourns and no longer gives fertility to the earth. This was an ancient Greek explanation for the seasons.[78]
In another Greek myth, a girl named Side (“pomegranate”) killed herself on her mother’s grave to avoid suffering rape at the hands of her own father Ictinus. Her blood transformed into a pomegranate tree.[80]
In the fifth century BC, Polycleitus took ivory and gold to sculpt the seated Argive Hera in her temple. She held a scepter in one hand and offered a pomegranate, like a “royal orb“, in the other.[81] “About the pomegranate I must say nothing,” whispered the traveller Pausanias in the second century, “for its story is somewhat of a holy mystery”.[81] The pomegranate has a calyx shaped like a crown. In Jewish tradition, it has been seen as the original “design” for the proper crown.[82]
Within the Heraion at the mouth of the Sele, near Paestum, Magna Graecia, is a chapel devoted to the Madonna del Granato, “Our Lady of the Pomegranate”, “who by virtue of her epithet and the attribute of a pomegranate must be the Christian successor of the ancient Greek goddess Hera”, observes the excavator of the Heraion of Samos, Helmut Kyrieleis.[83]
In modern times, the pomegranate still holds strong symbolic meanings for the Greeks. When one buys a new home, it is conventional for a house guest to bring as a first gift a pomegranate, which is placed under/near the ikonostasi (home altar) of the house, as a symbol of abundance, fertility, and good luck. When Greeks commemorate their dead, they make kollyva as offerings, which consist of boiled wheat, mixed with sugar and decorated with pomegranate. Pomegranate decorations for the home are very common in Greece and sold in most home goods stores.[84]
Pomegranates are one of the Seven Species (Hebrew: שבעת המינים, Shiv’at Ha-Minim) of fruits and grains enumerated in the Hebrew Bible (Deuteronomy 8:8) as special products of the Land of Israel, and the Songs of Solomon mentions pomegranate six times[89] and contains this particular quote: “Thy lips are like a thread of scarlet, and thy speech is comely: thy temples are like a piece of a pomegranate within thy locks.” (Song of Solomon 4:3).
Jewish Torah ornaments in the shape of pomegranates
The handles of Torah scrolls, when not in use, are sometimes covered with decorative silver globes similar in shape to pomegranates (Torah rimmonim).[90]
The pomegranate is said to have 613 seeds representing the 613 commandments of the Torah,[89] but it is a misconception. There is no clear source for this claim, although it is used as a metaphor in the Talmud for numerous good deeds.[91]
In the earliest incontrovertible appearance of Christ in a mosaic, a fourth-century floor mosaic from Hinton St Mary, Dorset, now in the British Museum, the bust of Christ and the chi rho are flanked by pomegranates.[92] Pomegranates continue to be a motif often found in Christian religious decoration. They are often woven into the fabric of vestments and liturgical hangings or wrought in metalwork. Pomegranates figure in many religious paintings by the likes of Sandro Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci, often in the hands of the Virgin Mary or the infant Jesus. The fruit, broken or bursting open, is a symbol of the fullness of Jesus’ suffering and resurrection.[85]
The pomegranate is one of the main fruits in Armenian culture (alongside apricots and grapes). Its juice is used with Armenian food and wine.[how?] The pomegranate is a symbol in Armenia, representing fertility, abundance, and marriage.[94] It is also a semireligious icon. For example, the fruit played an integral role in a wedding custom widely practiced in ancient Armenia; a bride was given a pomegranate fruit, which she threw against a wall, breaking it into pieces. Scattered pomegranate seeds ensured the bride’s future children.[95]
Introduced to China during the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), the pomegranate (Chinese: 石榴; pinyin: shíliu), in older times, was considered an emblem of fertility and numerous progeny. Pictures of the ripe fruit with the seeds bursting forth were often hung in homes to bestow fertility and bless the dwelling with numerous offspring, an important facet of traditional Chinese culture.[98]
In modern times, the pomegranate has been used to symbolise national cohesion and ethnic unity by Xi Jinping, urging the Chinese population to “stick together like pomegranate seeds”.[99]
In some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (Sanskrit: dāḍima[100]) symbolizes prosperity and fertility, and is associated with both Bhumi (the earth goddess) and Ganesha (the one fond of the many-seeded fruit).[101][102]
The pomegranate is an important fruit and symbol in Kurdish culture. It is accepted as a symbol of abundance and a sacred fruit of ancient Kurdish religions. Pomegranate is used as a symbol of abundance in Kurdish carpets.[103]
In Palestinian culture, the pomegranate symbolizes fertility and is deeply embedded in folklore and traditions. A popular saying states, ‘The pomegranate fills the heart with faith,’ and it’s believed that every seed should be eaten, as one [pomegranate seed] may have come from paradise.[104]
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